Principles Of Personal Development Essay

Social workers follow certain standards that give guidance on ways of working that have been identified as good practice. These standards include: †¢ legal requirements (regulations) †¢ codes of practice †¢ national occupation standards (for training in different job roles) †¢ minimum standards Identify two standards for each of the different aspects of social care work listed below. see more:principles of personal development in adult social care settings Ai – Confidentiality and sharing information: 1. Legal Requirement: Data Protection Act 2. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety Aii – Equality and diversity: 1. Code of Practice: Equality Act 2. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety Aiii – Health and safety: 1. Legal Requirement: Manual Handling Regulations 2. Legal Requirement: Health and Safety at Work Act Aiv – Personal development: 1. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety 2. Codes of Practice: GSCC Av – Safeguarding and protection: 1. Codes of Practice: GSCC 2. National Occupation Standards: Quality and Safety Avi – Explain what a PDP is, and what it should include: A ‘PDP’ is a Personal Development Plan. A PDP is a written document that is agreed upon between you and or employer. A PDP will include information about what qualifications you have, training you have got and what training you still need to do. What goals you have set for yourself, what you feel you can improve on and what your employer thinks you need to improve on.  Avii – Identify three people who might be involved in providing information and feedback for a personal development plan: 1. Matron 2. Senior Staff 3. Service Users Aviii – List three different ways your own learning and development might be supported: 1. Appraisals 2. Encouraging feedback from senior members of staff/service users 3. Courses Aix – List four different ways that a personal development plan may benefit your learning and development: 1. Setting own realistic goals that helps you achieve the best you can 2. Organisation can help improve reaching time limits 3. Improvement can easily be achieved 4. Making sure you are reaching you goals and what you can do to change it Task B Case Study Jenna supports individuals living in their own homes and is having her first appraisal/review with her supervisor, Fatima. Fatima tells her that she can be trusted to use her own initiative, which is important because she works alone for much of the time. She is told that she is very reliable and caring. Feedback from individuals about her work is generally positive, but there has been a complaint from one service user who says he feels rushed and finds her manner rude. Jenna tells Fatima that she disapproves of some of his ways, which are against her beliefs, but had not realised that this showed in her attitude. Bi – Describe how Jenna should ensure that her personal attitudes and beliefs do not affect her work: Jenna needs to make sure that her personal believes are put aside, respecting the service users needs are more important than a personal opinion which may differ. Keeping work and personal life separate is crucial when working with others. Bii – Explain why it is important to reflect on your work activities: Reflecting on work activities is an important way for developing your knowledge and skills. Looking back on what you have done in the day will allow you to pick up on things you thought you could have done differently, find weaknesses and improve. Task C Reflective account Ci – Think of a learning activity you have taken part in that has improved your knowledge, skills and understanding. The activity may have been a training session, a demonstration of practice, learning a new skill or a research activity: Give a description of experience and how did this experience improve your knowledge, skills and understanding? When I first started in the caring industry I was lucky to have training in manual handling quite soon on, I was starting to feel my back hurting and finding it tricky to work together with the other carer when using the hoist/stand aid. After the training session I now know how to save my back from feeling the strain by make sure everything is in a good level reach and that communication when using the hoist and stand aid is important to both members of staff to reach the goal and for the service user to be safe. Cii – Think of an example of a time you have received feedback from others than has improved your knowledge, skills and understanding. This may have been from your assessor, tutor, a supervisor or line manager, or individuals using the service. Give a Description of feedback and how did this experience improve your knowledge, skills and understanding? When starting, feeding was one of my down falls. I used to get frightened I was going to choke someone, or course someone to aspirate. Whenever I could get information on individuals feeding habits I would make a point in asking. I would ask people for advice which really helped and would watch other people give feeding aid at lunch/dinner times. I received the best feedback on another carer when they showed me how they feed one individual, making sure you notice when they swallow. Ever since I have been more confident and I might still need improving in it, I do feel like I can safely feed someone.

The Arab Spring

The Arab Spring – Can It Avoid Death? A high degree of pessimism continues to hold a strong grip over the enthusiasts of democracy in the Arab world. In the last one year or so, the popular uprisings for social and political change have stalled in Bahrain, Syria and Yemen. In Egypt, Libya and Tunisia, where the populace succeeded in toppling the authoritarian rulers, things did not change that much. Violence, conflicts, and killings of political opponents disturbingly characterize all the Arab countries affected by the popular uprisings.On the whole, the success rate of democratization is so far disappointing. That begs the question whether the Arab popular uprisings for democratic change, what the media conveniently dubbed the ‘Arab Spring’, are dead or still alive. Certainly, the Arab Spring is not dead; prevailing political and economic realities do, however, indicate that it is inching towards the death bed. Though it is too early to make such an assertion, th e insurmountable political and economic challenges facing the post-revolutionary governments portend less hope for its success.There exist huge gaps between what the pro-democracy forces expected from the revolutions, that is, the expectations of transforming their societies away from authoritarian to democratic order, and what has been achieved or what is achievable on the ground. Neither national conditions nor global developments appear propitious to favor the goals and expectations of the pro-democracy forces. The Arab Spring, in stark contrast to other great historical revolutions, is marked by a series of distinctive features, and many of its weaknesses largely originate from these distinctive features.This is probably the first time in history that popular uprisings for social and political change kicked off without a particular ideology to promote. The Arab youths who organized the uprisings and shaped its course come from different political persuasions; they had no common political platform, no common political thread to tie them together. Neither in the post-uprisings period did they galvanize their political spirit by floating a common political party to consolidate their victories against the anti-democratic, counter-revolutionary forces.Equally noticeable was the absence of able leaders to guide the uprisings to successful conclusions. True, there existed some timid political parties in Egypt, Tunisia, and Yemen but no revolutionary or visionary leaders in the likes of George Washington, V. I. Lenin, Mahatma Gandhi, Ayatollah Khomeini or Nelson Mandela. These political parties were hesitant to join the pro-democracy popular movements but tried to catch up once protesters defied the security forces and went out of control of the autocratic regimes.The leadership vacuum has put the army initially and then the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, the Ennahda Party in Tunisia, a conglomerate of anti-Gaddafi forces in Libya, and elements of the old guards in Yemen in power. The beginning rather sounded inauspicious. Worse of all, the uprisings have fostered close collaboration between democratic and counter-revolutionary camps. The conservative Gulf monarchies, except Kuwait to a large extent, are the most fortified anti-democratic fort of the Middle East.In order to preserve hereditary rules and oil money-supported patronage systems, the Saudi King Abdullah sent troops on 14 March 2011 to suppress the popular demands for political and economic reforms in the island kingdom of Bahrain. The US, which has its Fifth Fleet based in Bahrain and a welter of strategic and business interests throughout the Gulf, acquiesced to Saudi intervention. Iran was projected as the enemy out there to take advantage.The Saudis, the Qataris and the Americans also found themselves onboard to oust Muammar Gaddafi through NATO-led military assault on Libya – a wonderful episode of cooperation between democracy and authoritarianism history will preserve in its archive for good. The young Egyptians, Libyans, Tunisians and Yemenis have defied all authoritarian hurdles to set their homelands on the track to democracy. They did not dream of becoming European liberals or American conservatives overnight but were motivated by the need to bury their authoritarian past and build their countries anew.There is a minimum expectation that propels every great revolution. In 1917 the Russian proletariat and the unpaid armed forces supported V. I. Lenin’s socialist revolution in the hope of securing a guaranteed future for bread and butter; the French revolutionaries of 1789 mobilized the common Frenchmen by promising an end to monarchical absolutism and the promulgation of inalienable rights, citizenships for all and good governance.In 2011, the Arab youths and mass people started their uprisings believing that they would be better off in a post-authoritarian system. Their expectations focused on achieving three principal goals – f reedom from want, freedom from fear, and the freedom to live in dignity what together make up human security, a concept the UNDP first popularized in 1994. Human security is widely defined as ‘safety from the constant threats from hunger, disease, crime and repression’.The achievement of human security in the post-revolutionary Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Yemen requires, at a minimum, enough employment creations for the Arab youth bulge (15 – 29 age brackets) who constitute one-third of the total population, elimination of mass poverty (that ranges from 25 per cent in Egypt to 54. 5 per cent in Yemen) and economic inequalities, the elimination of conflicts, crimes and violence, and an end to intimidations, illegal tortures, and discriminations.In a nutshell, in order for the Arab Spring to stay alive, the post-uprisings Arab governments must achieve a minimum level of economic development to satisfy the basic needs of their people, and reorient the political order to secure good governance and social justice for all. The big question is: can they do it? Both insiders and outsiders easily comprehend that much of the violence and conflicts that keep battering Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Yemen originate from the lack of adequate economic provisions for the common people.The initial euphoria for democracy, it seems, may not last long unless the economy picks up dynamism with job promises for the young people. A 2012 Pew Research Center poll has found that the common Arabs prefer a strong economy to a democratic government. One does not need to be a genius like Karl Marx to grasp the simple idea that economics shapes the patterns of politics. The Egyptians are particularly frustrated that their post-revolution economic condition is worse than it was under Hosni Mubarak.Fiscal crisis and current account imbalances are more than threatening to the goals of pro-democracy movements. Egypt’s foreign currency reserves dropped from $36 billion in 2 010 to $24 billion by July 2011 and by January 2013 it shriveled to $13. 6 billion; foreign investors pulled $5. 5 billion by the end of 2011 and foreign direct investment declined sharply; GDP growth rate slid to 1. 8 per cent in 2011 to 1. 5 per cent in 2012 creating many economic woes for the Egyptians.The same picture is visible in Tunisia and Yemen. The dictators vanished leaving behind their economies in shambles. Under Hosni Mubarak, Egypt strongly pursued a pro-market private sector-led development strategy till his fall in February 2011. Late Anwar El-Sadat introduced this strategy in the mid-1970s that marked a cut-off point from Gamal Abdel Nasser’s social contract that guaranteed employments for the educated youths and free social services for the common Egyptians in exchange for political loyalty.Mubarak’s son Gamal Mubarak, groomed as the next in succession line, pursued a rapid privatization program and sold most state corporations to private Egyptian bu sinessmen and investors from Brazil, China, Russia, the US, and the Gulf Arab states. The program spread elite corruption and sharply widened the gaps between the rich and the poor effectively turning Egypt into a two-tier society. In Tunisia, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali established a family fiefdom where his family members and relatives came to firmly control the economic and commercial activities of the country.The common Tunisians suffered so much so that their patience broke down once the college graduate Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire on 17 December 2010. In Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh dispensed power and patronage through biased tribal and regional systems that bred discontents nationally and ignited rebellion in some parts of the country. Al-Qaeda fighters stepped in to take advantage of domestic political and economic grievances created by Saleh’s misrule. A quick improvement in post-revolutionary economies requires nothing less than economic miracles but this is very unlikely to happen.A few steps that seem urgent include a bold transition to market economy, introduction of sound fiscal and economic growth strategies to create employment opportunities for the youth bulge, policies to reduce social and economic gaps between the rich and the poor and simultaneous democratization of the political order at a pace people find acceptable. Libya may find the transition relatively easy since money coming from the oil sector gives it substantial leverage to navigate through financial and economic difficulties.The Libyan government earned a total of $54. 9 billion in 2012 in oil and gas revenues with a state budget of approximately the same amount for the same year to finance (50 billion Libyan dinars budget). For resource-poor Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen there is no easy solution. Their limited capacities to deal with post-revolution social and economic problems are chipped away by the continuing global economic recession, particularly the economic decline in the European Union (EU) member states.The economies of Egypt and Tunisia are more integrated with the EU; Tunisia, in particular, is sensitive to the ripple effects of what happens in the big EU economies. The economic and social problems are complicated more by the evolving patterns of politics. Except in Yemen, the Islamists are in control in all the post-revolutionary Arab states. Long repressed by the Arab autocrats, the Islamists rose to power by capitalizing on the weaknesses of the secular political forces and by dint of their organizational strength.The electoral victories of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt or the Ennahda Party in Tunisia did not bring with them a wealth of democratic state and nation-building experiences. While in the opposition they found too many faults with the now toppled dictators but once in power they started wavering in action, sometimes making the politically counterproductive decisions. The violent popular reactions to power grab by Egyptian Presi dent Mohammed Morsi is just a case at hand.In the absence of governance experiences and a development plan to stimulate economic growth to steer clear of political discontents, many Islamists turned to Turkey under the AKP (Justice and Development Party) rule since 2002 as a possible model to emulate. Soon after the Tunisian revolution, the Ennahda Party leader Rachid Ghannouchi told a press conference that his party would follow the Turkish model. A 2011 TESEV (Turkish Economic and Social Studies Center) public opinion survey in the Arab world found that 66 per cent of Arabs preferred Turkey as a model for their respective countries.Though opinions on what the Turkish model exactly means are divided, a simple articulation of the model points to the coexistence of democracy, political Islam, and successful economic liberalization. The Islamic AKP coexists with secular political parties in a secular democratic state structure without Islamizing the face and identity of Turkey but sup ervising rapid economic development with an average 8 per cent growth rate in 2010 and 2011. That marks a fundamental shift from the pre-2002 Kemalists-led state-imposed, elitist, and military supervised economic and political modernization of Turkey.Turkey, as a Muslim country and also because of its geographic proximity, appeals to the Arab world but it is doubtful whether Egypt, Libya or Tunisia can follow the footsteps of AKP. There is limited prospect for these countries at best to score big on issues like Turkish-style successful transition to market economy and integration into the global markets, a sufficient level of economic development to cope with the pressures of population growth, and efficient governance systems.Turkey itself is also experiencing economic contraction as its economy grew only by 1. 6 per cent in the third quarter of 2012. What hopes the economically less developed, less modernized Egypt, Tunisia or Yemen hold out for their people? While the AKP, being an Islamic party, has not really attempted to bring about Islamic transformation of Turkey, the Arab Islamic political parties and groups seek to promote Islamic laws and identities of their societies.Post-uprisings Egyptian, Libyan and Tunisian constitutions prioritize Islamic religion as the principal source of law and values. Extra pressures for Islamization are created by the salafi groups, such as the Libyan Islamic Movement for Change or the Al-Nour Party in Egypt. This is what destabilizes the post-revolution political order by unleashing diverse and conflicting political forces who constantly jockey for power and influence.No less damaging has been external interference in the spontaneous course of Arab pro-democracy movements. Great and regional powers have got dangerously enmeshed in the movements, either supporting or opposing the movements. UN Security Council Resolution 1973 legitimized NATO-led military intervention in Libya to promote democracy; it succeeded in bringi ng down the Gaddafi regime on 20 October 2011 but raised new serious questions about the application of force to promote democracy in the name of ‘the responsibility to protect’.The French arms delivery to the rebel fighters in violation of Security Council Resolution 1970 that imposed arms embargos on all Libyan parties, and regime change through force, according to many observers, overstepped the powers and jurisdictions of the two Resolutions. The Russians and the Chinese subsequently used it to justify their decisions to veto similar resolutions on Syria to stifle the pro-democracy forces. The Arab Spring, in fact, created a new geopolitical arena for the great powers either to promote or preserve their national interests, real as well as perceived.France became eager to spearhead the NATO military strikes on the Gaddafi regime once it secretly concluded coveted oil deals with the rebel National Transitional Council; the Russians would leave no stone untouched to sa feguard their naval base in Syria’s sea port Tartus and continue arms supplies to the Bashar Al-Assad government; and the Americans would support no action against their allies – the Bahraini Al-Khalifa rulers and Yemen’s Ali Abdullah Saleh though they warranted Security Council interventions.One notices with painful sadness that Arab democracy promotions did not genuinely figure in their interests calculations. Distressing internal developments and encumbering external environment together have retarded the normal course of the Arab Spring. It is beyond the imagination of many people that the Arab Spring is getting dried out so soon. The fates of past great historical revolutions constantly remind us not to be too much optimistic about the glorious Arab pro-democracy movements.The 1917 Russian socialist revolution lasted some seventy years what prompted the Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm to label the 20th century as ‘the short twentieth century’, the French Revolution soon unleashed a ‘Reign of Terror’ though normalcy returned after massive killings and bloodshed, and the 1979 Iranian Revolution soon found itself entangled in a long war with Iraq and then in shackles of sanctions imposed by the West. The Arab Spring is tied up by irresolvable internal politico-economic problems and unwelcome external involvements.This is what is cutting short the life of the Arab Spring. The young Arab democratic forces are angry with post-uprisings developments, they lack the capacities to define and determine the course of their countries but are spirited enough to safeguard what they have achieved by overthrowing the dictators in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Yemen. That promises no return to the authoritarian past but, at the same time, guarantees no progressive actions to materialize the objectives of the pro-democracy revolutions to keep the Arab Spring alive for years or decades to come.

Warhorse: World War I

Explain how the combination of two of the following elements was used in one live production that you have seen and assess their contribution to the creation of specific mood(s) and atmosphere(s) at moments: set design, lighting, sound. The live performance I have chosen to write about is ‘Warhorse’ which I saw on the 3rd February at the New London Theatre. In this essay, I am going to explain and analyse how the staging and the lighting together created the different atmospheres and moods such as fear and tension. Throughout the play, numerous themes are illustrated such as the barbarity of war and the cruelty of man. The themes of loyalty and hope are also illustrated and portrayed. Not only did the set and lighting help portray these themes and atmospheres, they also helped making the transitions fluid and the change between the two locations were easily interweaved due to the composite set. The staging used was thrust upon stage with a circular revolve in the centre. The revolve in the centre allowed for separation of the two sections along with the outside edge. The revolve was also used in holding frozen images when other action was taking place along the edge. The use of the no-naturalistic staging in the non-naturalistic theatre form was effective in portraying the different journeys from the likes of Joey. Even the flooring of the stage was a fundamental part of the set. The shades of grey and black gave the look of creased and uneven farmland and also the floor distinctively helped with making the trenches and war land look effective. The different appearances depended a lot on the lighting. At one point, on the back wall, there was a projection of a page torn out from Major Nicholl’s notebook along with projections of dates. This helped the audience follow the events of the war in chronological order. The page torn was also accompanied with different pictures inspired from Paul Nash, the World War One artist. Poppies were also projected to highlight the deaths that were caused by World War One. At the back of the stage, there was a large black area. The depth of this area gave the idea of the vastness of war space and the large scale of war. It also gave the illusion that the actors appeared from nowhere. We saw the transformation and transition of Joey from foal to adult in this black area. This moment was marked by the adult horse jumping over he foal in slow motion. Another big and memorable moment when this black area was used was when the new soldiers first arrived in France and they entered walking through the black space and into the wounded soldiers. This action was accompanied with a harsh white light which made the men look skeletal. The revolve helped in creating different locations and atmospheres and also helped mark key moments. One example of this is the ploughing scene. The struggle of the horse was emphasised by the turning of the revolve as it gave the illusion of a far distance. When Joey got caught on the barbed wire, the revolve was elevated and raised to a higher level to emphasise it. Another example of the use of the revolve was during the enlistment scene. As the announcement of war was made, men were encouraged to sign up along with their horses. The fun and exciting atmosphere at the funfair was highlighted by the revolvement. Flags were put up on the stage and also in the first few rows of audience. This made the audience feel involved and echoed how many people were involved in the war. There was a sense of dramatic irony as we saw the celebration of glory while one of the main themes of the play is barbarity of war. The striking, frozen image was held on the revolve and the image of triumph and glory was hugely contrasted with the action outside as Joey is being enlisted without the knowledge of Albert. We see the father receive money and the uncle giving his son the hand-me-down knife and also we see Albert frantically search for Joey – each of these moments being marked by a spotlight. The non-naturalistic frozen image held on the revolve juxtaposed the naturalistic action and images that were performed outside of the revolve. When Joey gets caught in the barbed wire, I found this moment very moving and it was one of the key moments on the revolve. The revolve emphasises the struggle from the horse. When Joey is ploughing for Albert, the revolve is again used to emphasise his struggle and also it gives the illusion of the long distance Joey had to plough for. The puppeteers who manipulated Joey in these scenes had the tough job of lowering his head and making all of his body parts move as if they were real. When he stumbles backwards, his legs shook and it looked very realistic. At the moment where he is stuck in the barbed wire, there is a projection of barbed wire on the back wall and this really enhanced the illusion that Joey was really stuck. The audience were tense watching this as they really worried about whether he would be able to escape. This was also the moment when the revolve was elevated as it stressed how much pain Joey was in and the fear he would be been feeling. He was lifted higher than the trenches and this showed how much pressure the horses were under and also how much they suffered too; it wasn’t just the soldiers and their families that suffered. Joey was helped freed by the two sides of the war came together. This exemplified the unity of men. By having a composite stage, it was effective as two different scenes were allowed to take place at once. One example of this is when Nicholls dies; men’s bodies and horses bodies were lying dead on the stage as Albert’s mother walked through in Devon; her life had not changed unlike the lives of these men. This moment illustrated how while these men and horses were fighting in the war, the families and people at home were safe at home going about as usual. When these two locations and atmospheres were combined it was really effective. At one point, in no-man’s land, black sticks were lowered from the hatches in the ceiling and they portrayed dead trees as it resembled the amount of deaths that were caused. The trees were representations of the lack of life; this created a reminiscent mood and made the audience reflect on those that died. Paul Nash was also the inspiration behind this. Images of silhouetted men were projected; this also reflected the vast amount of soldiers that died. The lighting used was effective in illustrating the change of location as we moved from Devon to France. It also assisted the set in creating the different moods and atmospheres. The lighting used for Devon was warm and gave homely atmosphere. The audience generally received a warm sense when Devon was visited. In comparison however, when in France, the lighting was dramatically different as it changed from cal, to quiet harsh white lights. The monochrome lighting that was constantly used in France really emphasised the gloomy and startling nature of the war. The bright lights intensified to portray key moments such as Nicholls’ death. Strobe lighting was also used to partner the repetitive gun shots. Nicholls’ death was a major key moment and was marked in numerous ways; he was thrown off Topthorne and a spotlight was focused on him as he and his horse fell in slow motion. A green light was also used to represent the mustard gas attack. As the gas leaked towards the soldiers, the audience felt the climax as we watched it approach them. To show the transportation from Britain to Franc, blue gels were used and also a yellow glow shone on Joey and the others as it demonstrated the life within them. This contrasted hugely with the bright white lights that were used to portray the skeletal look of the men and horses at battle in France. These same bright white lights were used in representing the explosions. Projections were also used alongside the lighting to effectively portray settings. The projection of Joey galloping freely in the open land was juxtaposed with the lack of freedom he got while at war. There was a projection of a tank during the scene where Joey is on stage with a huge tank. This was to done to portray the intimidation Joey must have felt as it was man vs. machine. As I have previously mentioned, the projection of Nicholls’ notebook created a sincere atmosphere for the audience as they reflect on the reason why Albert has gone to war; to find his horse. The only projection that was not in black and white were the poppies; this represented the bloodshed caused and again, the audience were left with a solemn and reminiscent mood. However, the colour also gave the audience the chance to reflect as the red illustrated remembrance. To conclude, I thought that through the set design and lighting of ‘Warhorse’, a variety of moods and atmospheres were successfully created. Tension, hope, remembrance were all enhanced and the audience were often left feeling reminiscent of the horrors of war.

Mandarin Oriental Group case study - Assignment

Mandarin Oriental Group case study - - Assignment Example In such context, the researcher will use these strategic tools conjointly to identify three key external environmental factors that will shape strategic direction of the luxury hotel and hospitality industry. External Factor 1 (Uncertain economic condition) this external factor is being identified by using PEST and opportunities/Threats matrix. Operating cost for hotels has increased due to ongoing ill effect of previous economic recession, oil price fluctuation, sovereign debt crisis and inflationary pressure (Campiranon, 2010). As a result, profit margin for luxury hotel and hospitality industry is decreasing and lack of availability of financial revenue is negatively affecting industry growth. In context to Mandarin Oriental Hotel Group (MOHG), volatile economic condition of macro environment can decrease their profit margin and revenue earning opportunity in future. External Factor 2 (Decline of theme based Hotels) - this external factor is being identified by using Boston Matrix and Product life cycle. With rise of modern life style and globalisation, demand for theme based hotels is decreasing and customers want all the facilities under one roof (Szulanski, 2009). As a result, theme based hotels have become less profitable and the industry is observing rapid divestment by theme based hotels in order to avoid further financial loss. In context to MOHG, declining sales of theme based hotels might cause saturation and obsolete certain segment of product portfolio. As a result, business growth of company will get negatively affected. External Factor 3 (Hypercompetitive Environment) - this external factor is being identified by using Porter 5 forces. Presence of many international and large domestic players has increased level of competition within the industry. Similarity in product portfolio, small target market and high customer churn rate

Cold War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cold War - Essay Example Allies disagreed on how the European map ought to be drawn. Western allies desired democratic governments. Independent governments would resolve their differences through international organizations.Defeat of Japan and Potsdam conferenceAfter the defeat of Germany, differences arise on the progress of Germany and the other countries in central and Eastern Europe. Truman announces of their atomic bomb to Stalin. A week after this conference USA bombs Hiroshima and Nagasaki which results in Japan’s unconditional surrender.Formation of eastern blockThe Soviets liberate central and EasternEurope territories from Nazi and make them among the eastern bloc. Stalin maintains control of the eastern bloc through force and secret Soviet police.Preparation of ‘new war’George F Kennan’s telegram from Moscow helped enforce US governments against the Soviets. This telegram became strategic base towards the Soviet Union during the cold war. Soviet respond to George telegra m with Novikov telegram. Soviet accuses the USA as monopoly capitalist and she was building up military capabilities. As the World War 2 came to end, mistrust and suspicion were rampant among states. The major cause of the cold war was dominance and spread of ideologies (communism and capitalism).The Soviet Union wished to spread communism ideology to the whole world. Americans also wanted to spread capitalism worldwide also.The atomic capability of America was a source of major suspicion and fear by the Soviets.

MANAGING PEOPLE IN RETAIL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MANAGING PEOPLE IN RETAIL - Essay Example If a specialist candidates is required, a job agency has the expertise to attract the right person; many also agencies specialize in the candidates they attract e.g. accountancy, haulage. Agencies take the worry out of the employment headache, and for the small business this can save a lot of time. But, unfortunately, they are unable to gauge the exact needs of each individual company. As the agency interviews all candidates, they cannot detect subtle personality requirements, which would help the candidate settle in. If the candidate is found to be unsuitable, this means more lost time. Finally, agencies also charge a fee; so if we are going to use an agency, check their fees, as they could prove quite expensive. Many Job Centres offer recruitment services for companies who use them to recruit. For example, many will offer a room to interview potential candidates; others will help to draw up a short list based on our job specification. Above all, this service is free. Needless to say, this will save a small business quite a lot of time and money when recruiting. This is an effective method as it reaches a large audience in a short space of time, often resulting in a significant amount of interest. We can also target an area or specialist profession, as there are a multitude of magazines and newspapers on offer to choose from. However, we may find that the more specialized or selective we become, the more we have to pay to the advertisement, so it can work out quite expensive. Additionally, if we want to attract the right candidate, we need to have some publishing skills to produce an attractive advertisement. We can of course use a specialist publishing company to design the right ad, but this will again cost us money. Our company is a modern fast growing young retail business. We have a wide net of hypermarkets. We have many branches of our business worldwide and have built up a good reputation within our field of trade. We are

Explain the importance of strategic alliances in international Assignment

Explain the importance of strategic alliances in international business and the reasons why companies choose this growth strateg - Assignment Example This action of entering into foreign markets opens up the firm to benefits of economies of scale and increased opportunities for marketing and distribution. However, the cost linked with entering into foreign markets may far out-span the capabilities of a single firm (BLEEKE & ERNST 1993, 27). This then dictates the need to enter into a strategic alliance with another international firm. This has the effect of expediting the rate of entry into the foreign market albeit maintaining relative low costs (SHENKAR & REUER 2006, 71). Several logistical tussles are still to be encountered with entry into foreign markets. These tussles range from entrenched competition, unfriendly government regulation and irrelevant beauracracies (GIBBS & HUMPHRIES 2009, 45). There is a higher prospect of overcoming these obstacles when strategic alliances are employed, as contrasted to when the firm decides to venture into foreign markets on a solitary basis. There exist three core categories via which stra tegic alliance can be regarded. The first one of these is joint ventures. Joint ventures are formed when the respective companies combine to form an independent company. The respective companies decide to share the profit and loss of the new entity that will be created. One of the most notable cases where joint venture was created is that of Sony Ericson. Sony and Ericson decided to form a new entity known as Sony Ericson Mobile Communications. However, this new entity has just recently been fully owned by the Sony Corporation who renamed it Sony Mobile Communications. The next category of strategic alliances is equity strategic alliances. This entails the new partners having different percentages of equity in the new venture. Depending on the motive or goal of the strategic alliance, the partners can either opt to share equity in each other’s business on in one business. The determining factor is the reason for the strategic alliance. An example of such an alliance is that b etween Star-Bucks and Kraft. The last category of strategic alliance is non-equity strategic alliances. This is when a strategic alliance is carried out on the terms of a contract agreement rather than on the ownership basis. The relationship of this kind is usually referred to as a contractual relationship. A good example of a non-equity strategic alliance is the one between Vodafone and Telecom Malaysia. The deal was signed in 2006 whereby Vodafone was the leading partner. Strategic alliance requires a well though-out procedure to ensure the alliance is successful and realizes its intended goal(s). Prior to embarking on an alliance, firms should choose partners whose strategic goals and objectives are compatible to their own. The firm should take into consideration the extent to which synergy will be availed. Additionally, firms should endeavour to participate in strategic alliances that complement the firm. This translates to mean that, firms ought to engage in alliances that wil l complement their skills, their products and services in addition to its market share. Akin to all business agreements, rules and regulations must be incorporated into strategic alliances. These factors are divided into scope of operation and length of cooperation. The scope of operation entails partners agreeing on how to handle potentially competitively sensitive information. Secondly, it expounds on what will be shared and what will

MGT 350 MANAGEMENT OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES Essay

MGT 350 MANAGEMENT OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES - Essay Example The study will be therefore interesting as it will provide us with an intuit understanding of the reasons behind the struggling for survival of one company with the incurrence of such huge losses while the other company which is Toyota Motor Corporation is generating profit profits every year (Carr-Ruffino, & Acheson, 2007). To gain an in-depth understanding of both companies and the reasons behind the success of one and the losses by the other, this study will further make analysis of the contrasting strategies employed by both companies. Various studies on the situation of general motors has come to a conclusion that the problems facing General motors bore more significance that are beyond those directly involved (Saunders, 1989). It must thus be realized that the failure of General Motors will not only have huge psychological, social and economic impact in the United States where it has asserted its place as an iconic automobile manufacturer, but its failure will negatively impact on the United States economy in addition to adversely affecting other economies. Hence, the failure of General Motors would result to repercussions that would be felt worldwide (Drucker, 1994). General Motors Corporation History General Motors (GM) first came into existence in 1908 in Flint, Michigan as a holding company back then for Buick and was then controlled by William C. Durant. The company later acquired Oldsmobile later the same year (Cummings, 1993). Later, Durant brought in Cadillac, Oakland which later came to be known as Pontiac and Elmore amongst many more others. Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan was acquired in 1909 in addition to the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan which served as the predecessor of GMC Truck (Drucker, 1994). In charge of the corporation was Alfred Sloan who led the company to its post-war global dominance. The unprecedented growth of the company lasted through the late 70s into the early 80’s. The internation al expansion of the company continued through the establishment of General Motors Overseas Operation in 1938 which was in charge of all vehicles manufacturing and marketing outside the United States and Canada. This growth continued in the 1990s (Marketline, 2007). The Core Business of General Motors The core business of General Motors Corporation is to engage in the development, production and marketing of trucks, cars and automobile parts in addition to being engaged in insurance and finance operations. The primary operations of the company are centralized in North America and Europe with its headquarters being located in Detroit, Michigan and with a worldwide employee population of 280, 000 (Marketline, 2007). Core Technologies employed by General Motors Each of General Motors automotive divisions target specific market segments despite some having some shared components; the distinguishing factor between each division is the unique styling and technology employed. The strategy o f General Motors for core technology is aimed at sharing components and common corporate management in a bid to create an upgrade path that is orderly (Carr-Ruffino, & Acheson, 2007). The entry level buyer starts with a very practical but which is at the same time economical, Chevrolet, and moving through the offerings of the different divisions until one purchases a Cadillac. Manufacturing

Care of People with Dementia on Hospital wards ( acute settings) Essay

Care of People with Dementia on Hospital wards ( acute settings) - Essay Example It is yet unclear whether, despite abundant literature on the management of dementia in acute care settings, the training and practice of staff meets the demands of the ageing population. Currently, most of the practice is based on biomedical model (McCloskey, 2004). Due to rise in the elderly population and simultaneous increase in the number of patients suffering from dementia, research and practice of dementia patients in acute care settings is a necessity in order to meet the needs of the patients and their families affected by dementia. The purpose of this essay is to identify current practices in the nursing care of patients with dementia in acute care settings, discuss best practice guidelines pertaining to care of this population, analyse factors influencing the care of dementia patients in acute care settings and evaluate various options pertaining to alternative modes of management. The economic, social and health status of the fast-growing elderly population poses a great challenge to all sectors. The WHO (2006) has projected that the elderly population of the world will cross the one billion mark by the year 2020 and by that time, over 700 million old people will be living in developing countries. It is unfortunate to say that little attention is paid to the enormous needs of the elderly population because the National Health Services are still preoccupied with tackling of the communicable diseases, maternal and child care and thus have no time, money and place for geriatric problems like dementia. According to the Advisory Panel on Alzheimers Disease (1996, p6), health professionals ignore patients with dementia because of "sense of impotence" pertaining to the treatment of their health problems and perception of increased cost of treatment. However, Cherry and Reid (200, p3) opined that nursing staff are aware of the fact that they are unable to deliver app ropriate care to the elderly patient and thus meet their needs specifically. One

Source Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Source Evaluation - Essay Example Darren et al (806-807) observes that â€Å"physical inactivity is a modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a widening variety of other chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus, cancer (colon and breast), obesity, hypertension, bone and joint diseases (osteoporosis and osteoarthritis), and depression.† According to his research, all the people that made the tendency to engage in physical activity reduced their chances of getting cardiovascular diseases by 20%. Recently, there have been far greater reductions in the death risks as a result of cardiovascular attacks. In general increase in levels of participation in physical activities reduces the chances of premature deaths other causes kept constant. According to this journal, there are many biological mechanisms have been able function effectively and decrease the number of unending diseases and untimely deaths that have their route causes on physical activity. For example, routine physical activity has been known to enhance body composition. Through physical exercise is able to balance its fat content. Excess fats are usually burnt during physical exercise to release energy. In this exercise the body is able to check against excess accumulation of such fast that could lead to diseases like heart attack and high blood pressure. Among the recommended ways to reduce cholesterol levels in the body, exercise is the only one which is cost free and easily done. These biological mechanisms and others clearly account for the reduced number of chronic illnesses as a result of little or no sports activities. Another significant reason for involvement in sports is that it enables proper psychological well being of an individual. Darren emphasizes that regular physical activity is linked with improved mental well-being i.e. through reduced stress, nervousness and depression.† (806). A person’s psychological well-being is very important because of one main reason; for proper avoidance and

Psychology 14 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Psychology 14 - Essay Example Kohlbergs moral stages are applicable in different spheres of life. In explaining the situation facing the Christians, the six stages in all the three levels are used. According to Kohlberg (1984), the first level, known as Preconventional or the premoral is concerned with an individuals’ level of responsiveness to both rules their evaluative labels. It views them in terms of either their pleasant or unpleasant consequences of action. Characteristics of the first stage include obedience and punishment orientation, which major concern is on the objectiveness of the responsibility. With reference to this stage, the Christians disobeyed the law and therefore liable for punishment. The second stage, which Kohlberg described as naively egoistic orientation defines the right action as a parson’s means through which they can personally satisfy their needs as well as that of others. With personal satisfaction being essential in this stage, the actions taken by the Christians we re justified. The second level is defined by conventional or role conformity. In this level, it points out that the moral values guide a person in performing the right role in maintaining the conventional order as well as accomplishing the desire of other people but still maintaining his own right. In this level, the third stage defines the good boy or the good girl orientation, geared towards pleasing other people (Nisha, 2006). There was no need to intentions of the Christians in pleasing Nero and this meant that they were not wrong in their actions. Evaluation of the action taken by an individual is in terms of the personal orientations. The fourth stage, authority and social-order-maintaining orientation, means that the orientation of showing any form of respect to the people as a duty and maintain any form of social order did not justify the actions of these Christians in any way, and thus were supposed to be punished. The third level, the postconventional or

Legal, Safety and Regulatory Requirements Essay Example for Free

Legal, Safety and Regulatory Requirements Essay This paper examines the impact of legal, safety and the regulatory requirements of the human resources development in an organization. This aspects look at the rights of the employee and the employer and how they are secured. This human resources process affects the lawful, well-being, and governing guidelines inside a business while the privileges of those employers and workers are protected by the U. S. Department of Labor, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and the Department of Homeland Security. The employee-related regulations are to guard the privileges of a company and worker. The U. S. Department of Labor gives organization an excellent effective setting and reduces employment ratios by offering development within the organization. The human resources areas have to commit to having current rules and guidelines for salaries and times worked. And human resources management has to guarantee all personnel whether United States residents or non-United States mindful of any material may possibly be related (United States Department of Labor, 2011). According to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 states it is unlawful to differentiate a capable individual with a disability. The law states it is prohibited to react against an individual since the individual complained about injustice, filed an allegation of discrimination, or take part in discrimination complaint. It expects that employers fairly provide the known physical or mental restrictions of an otherwise capable individual with a disability who is an applicant or employee, unless doing so would force an undue difficulty on the process of the employers business. The employees of Department of Homeland Security work diligently to preserve the well-being and safety of the United States. They work with municipalities, people, and countries to support them plan for and pull through from emergencies. They evaluate dozens of virtual security statements, and portions of intelligence, continuing continuous communication with specialists all through the country to defend the United States most important buildings and resources. With the legislation of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, Department Homeland Security Secretary Tom Ridge made a commitment that the new human resources system would be the result of a cooperative and comprehensive process involving supervisors, employees, labor organizations, and a expansive group of participants and specialists from the Federal division and private organization in order to deliver the greatest procedures possible for the employees of Homeland Security. The final guidelines administer to the new human resources for Department Homeland Security is evidence to that commitment The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission defends all employees working inside a corporation against discrimination regarding age, disability, sex, national origin, color or race. The human resources organization has to stay in agreement by making sure that all supervisors are extremely capable to properly relate with employees in the process of hiring, training, advancing, and dismissing. This law is enforced by a federal agency, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). This law is laid out into three segments that consist of e sexual harassment, affirmative action, and equal opportunity. These three different segments have a huge influence on the human resources division, and the employment process and this department must follow the law. These equal opportunity regulations will guarantee an employee is given an equal opportunity while submitting an application or resume for a position at an organization regardless of race, age, or gender. When looking at affirmative action this process allows an organization to hire individuals which fit in to a certain group of individuals. The sexual harassment process is put into the work environment to guarantee employees both women and men are secured under both federal and state law, sexual harassment can be verbal, physical or both, this type of harassment cannot only affect an employee’s work environment, but more importantly that person emotional well-being. Sexual harassment can make an employee feel uncomfortable coming to work, prevents them from focusing on their tasks work, and they can take that emotional stress home with them. The Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 law makes it unlawful to discriminate against any individual basis on race, color, religion, national origin, or sex. It also makes it unlawful to react hostile to an individual because the individual protested about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in a discrimination lawsuit (U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2011). This law also states that supervisors reasonably provide candidates and employees time to hold religious customs, except if doing so would inflict an unnecessary stress on the owners organization. This also goes for the federal government and employment services, and labor establishments, also need to acknowledge the law. The majority of discrimination lawsuits claim a violation of this law. In regards to the statement that, â€Å"Common sense and compassion in the workplace has been replaced by litigation. † I look up the definition and it stated that Common sense is sound practical judgment derived from experience rather than study. And compassion is sympathy for the suffering of others, often including a desire to help (Encarta 1999). Guidelines and procedures are put in place to defend employees and employers. Nevertheless, not all procedures and guideline are for every employee or employer. Every situation is different and has to be approach differently; no two people are the same. A human resources manager has to be able to look at these different situations and make a choice that’s good for the organization employees. Making the right decisions protect the organization from lawsuits. The distress of upsetting employees or possible ligation has caused human resources departments to outline guidelines and procedures.

Theory of Conceptual Change

Theory of Conceptual Change Introduction What is conceptual change? Conceptual change is a process that changes or replaces an existing conception with a new conception. It could be an idea, a belief or a way of thinking [1]. The shift or restructuring of knowledge and beliefs are what distinguishes conceptual change learning from other types of learning. In conceptual change learning, an existing conception might be fundamentally changed, replaced or assimilate by the new knowledge. The change forms a conceptual framework that is useful to solve future problems and explain the knowledge [2]. The theory of conceptual change was developed by a group of science education researchers and philosophers in Cornell University in the early 80s [2]. The theory was based on both Piagets notion of disequilibration and accommodation and Thomas Kuhns description of scientific revolution [1]. Conceptual Change from the epistemological perspective The term epistemological belief is defined as philosophical nature of knowledge and the process of knowing [3]. The influence of epistemological beliefs in classroom instruction in different domain and the way student perceive or manage their knowledge, is an interesting point of research [4], [5], [6]. Epistemological beliefs research proves that the naivety of students beliefs regarding the nature of learning and knowledge are strongly resulted from their less-sophisticated learning strategies, their lower level of cognitive functioning and flexibility of their cognition process [7]. The best known conceptual change model in science education is based on students epistemologies which is derived and refined by Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog in 1982 [2] and applied to classroom instruction. Posner et.al. [2] suggests that classical conceptual change is similar to the Kuhns [1] notion of a paradigm shift and Piagets notion of assimilation, accommodation and disequilibrium. Classical conceptual change shows that dissatisfaction or cognitive conflict of the students occur when their belief and conception in the existing conception framework fail to meet the new conception. Therefore, the students must find intelligent, plausible and fruitful concepts to explain new concepts that may replace or assimilate with the old conceptions. The duration of productive conception in the students is too difficult to detect. The learning models use of constructs such as conceptual ecology, assimilation and accommodation suggests a constructivist notion based on Piagets research. Wandersee, Mintzes and Novak reported in 1994 [8] that these methods are more effective than traditional methods. However, it is rather difficult to compare the effectiveness of conceptual change approaches and other approaches. Different approaches to the teaching and learning process have different aims; hence evaluation should be set to meet specific goals. The aim in conceptual change depends on the way the approaches are used in classroom practice and whether the potential to achieve goals. According to Posner et al. and Hewson [2], it is the student who determines conceptual status and conceptual changes that associates with the constructivist learning theory and the highly personal nature of conceptions, viewed as mental models. The ability to select intelligible, plausible and fruitful representations or conceptions for a specific context is a measure of expertise [9]. However, researchers need to be aware that apparent conceptual changes may in fact be context-driven choices. The use of conceptual profiles proposed by Mortimer [10] in learning settings help to differentiate conceptual changes from contextual choices. Finally, the relation between epistemological beliefs and conceptual change learning needs to be highlighted for further research. Conceptual Change from the ontological perspective Students knowledge is represented by some researchers as an ontology, that is, as a representation of what is apparent for them based on what they know. A model called phenomenological primitives (p-prim) by DiSessa [11] interprets how students think about particular situations. Some believe that p-prim are additional aspects important to conceptual change. It is necessary to find effective representations of such information to be successful in inducing conceptual change. Some researches focus on conceptual change processes in terms of mental models. The pre-existing knowledge of children about how the world works involves the spontaneous changes and instruction-based changes at the mental model level [12]. Similarly, [13] argues that even very young children develop their own theories and speculate about phenomena. They believe based on the instruction, observations and experience from their daily life due to their ontological and epistemological commitments with the lack of scientific theories. A childs perception is constrained by their naive framework of presuppositions [14]. Chi [15] argues that conceptual change requires an ontological shift. The conceptual change process is hard because the lack of appropriate strategy to assign concept to a different ontological category. Mindful students can assign the concept into the correct category by revising their ontological commitments, categories, and presuppositions. Posner et al.,[2] primarily use epistemology to elaborate on conceptual changes and also research on the way that students view reality. Other researchers use specific ontological terms to explain changes to the way students conceptualize science entities [16], [17], [14]. Carey [18] reasons that sound knowledge restructuring during childhood shows that some of the childrens concepts cannot be compared with adults. Vosniadou [14] called for similarly radical changes in restructuring and also explains that revisions to central framework theories involve ontological and epistemological changes. There are many other concepts in which the scientists process views are incomparable with students material conceptions. The desired changes to ontology are not often achieved in school science. Despite this pessimistic view, change of school students material is possible. However, scientific concepts are highly complicated and the view of optimizing school science is different with scientific v iew. Consistent with ontological position is the research of Chiu, Chou and Liu [19] who adopted Chis [15] ontological categories of scientific concepts to investigate how students perceive the concept of chemical equilibrium. Because science concepts are not presented by teachers or in textbooks with any ontological differentiation, the desired changes to student ontology are not usually achieved in school science. Chiu et al. [19] argues that Posners [2] theory does not accurately represent the nature of scientific concepts which makes learning the concept difficult. Duit Sinatra [9], [20] utilization of Chis [15] theory has constraint based features which includes randomness, simultaneous action, and uniform activities. These features prevent students from deeply understanding the nature of this concept. Students in the cognitive apprentice group were more able to develop the microscopic concepts compared to the non-cognitive apprentice group. They were able to comprehend that the added compounds are eliminated by the reaction that they themselves caused as well as the macroscopic phenomenon of equilibrium evidenced in the reaction. The research also showed that matter concepts were relatively easily understood in a scientific context but students had more difficulty understanding dynamic and random activities of particles in an equilibrium state. Conceptual change from the affective perspective There are limited attention involving interest and motivation in conceptual change of the affective domain. This needs to be developed in science teaching because they play an important role in supporting conceptual change on the level of scientific knowledge. The classical conceptual change approach involves the affective by implicitly pointing to student dissatisfaction with prior knowledge. To support these issues, Pintrich et al. [21] articulated that a hot conceptual change is as evident as cold cognition. He emphasized that students self-efficacy and control beliefs, the classroom social context along with his goals, intentions, purposes, expectations and needs are as important cognitive strategies in concept learning. Students theories, beliefs and models are influenced by personal, motivational, social, historical factors and situational beliefs. Their background knowledge is often the constraint of knowledge restructuring. Individual goals, purposes and intentions promote co nceptual change in students. Educators who disregard the social and motivational factors in learning and teaching activities will cause limitation in the students change in knowledge [ 20]. Emotions and motivation are crucial to the possibility of change [23]. Although such models can reengineer human conceptual change in some instances, they fail to recognize emotional attachment to an idea. Conceptual change from the intentional perspective Intentional learning [22], [23] as a purposeful goal-directed type of learning process is internally initiated instead of environmentally initiated. Therefore it is totally controlled in the conscience of the student. The intentional student knows and believes in internal initiation and goal oriented actions in the process of absorbing knowledge. Intentional learning interrelates to educational psychology with the constructs of higher level of learning and reasoning, self-regulation, engagement, and critical thinking. The students must be purposeful to monitor and regulate their learning in a metacognitive manner. The lack of intentional learning in conceptual change may result in students assimilating new knowledge into existing ones without conceptual change. Gale Sinatra [24] argues that students conception have evolved from being a passive receiver of information to an active constructor of knowledge. From then on, students progress from being an active constructor to an intentional student as well. Intentional learning is an achievement and not an automatic consequence of human intelligence that develops spontaneously with age. It is not even promoted in schools. Bereiter and Scardamalia [25] argue that students meet the short-term goals of school tasks with their own strategies instead of taking the effort to intentionally learn. Although the learning process can be intentional, students do not take initiative to learn. Thus, intentional learning is considered as a non-automatic characteristic but something that develops with age. Students metaconceptual awareness can be improved by allowing them to visualize and express their ideas and beliefs verbally in group discussions. Collaborative learning, class discussions, observations, experiments and design of model, symbolic representation are significant for the growth of metaconceptual awareness and intentional learning. As a conclusion, intentional, motivated students are in control of their learning process [25]. Conceptual change from the social cultural perspective The overall culture and social conceptions also influences the conceptual change process. Solomon [26] states that socio cultural factors are significant in the learning process in achieving certain tasks. Solomon goes on to debate that if a students idea no longer exists, it will gradually be excluded from common interaction that might affect conceptual change process in students. The main outcome is to reform the social culture and to achieve understanding. As a whole, social culture is a huge influence in fostering conceptual change in students. Hatano and Inagaki [27], who studied socio cultural environments that induced instructional change in schools, found out that social interaction and classroom group activities results in considerable progress in knowledge restructuring. However, more research is needed to investigate different methods in which conceptual change can be effectively applied by combining cognitive and socio cultural factors [27]. Conceptual change from the multidimensional perspective The learning and teaching development is in need of pluralistic frameworks [28] to appropriately include the many perspectives from different views of learning. In science and scientific education, conceptual change in the multidimensional perspective appear to be promising to improve understanding of science teaching and learning [9]. In a nutshell, conceptual changes must consider epistemological, ontological and affective perspective ought to sufficiently manipulate the complex teaching and learning processes [29]. Future researches will merge ideas of conceptual change and theories on the significance of affective factors. In contrast, Venville and Treagust [30] used four different perspectives which employs Posner, et al.s [2] conceptual change model, Vosniadous [14] framework theory and mental model perspective, Chi et al.s [16] ontological categories and Pintrich et al.s [31] motivation perspective, to research on various learning situations in which analogies were used. Venville and Treagust [30] state that each of them contributed to different theoretical perspectives and has different roles played in the classroom situations. The importance of conceptual change in science education In the conceptual change model, students use their existing knowledge, which is their conceptual ecology, to determine whether the different conditions are met. The new conception must be intelligible (the meaning is understood), plausible (the concept is true), and fruitful (the concept is useful). If the new conception fulfils all three conditions, conceptual change occurs and learning proceeds without difficulty [32]. It is safe to assume that students do not come into science instruction class without any prior knowledge of the subject. [9]. As a matter of fact, students already have rich and robust misconceptions, or naive conceptions that contrasted with the scientific world. Their misconception and the accompanying commonsense form the basis of the conceptual framework which the students rely on to interpret and make sense of new instructions. The student conceptions, despite being a stubborn source to influence by instruction, are also the foundation of scientific conceptions. In traditional teaching method, procedural competence is emphasized [33] more than conceptual understanding. Teaching methods are geared towards delivering facts that are passively absorbed by students in class. Students do not challenge their existing beliefs without the stimuli of new conception, but instead accept the knowledge as it is. Therefore, conceptual change in education, which encourages problem solving and open discussion is conducive in constructing an accurate and lasting conceptual framework in students which will be useful for future knowledge acquisition. Challenges in Conceptual Change Research Despite decades of research and discussion in the field of science and education, answers to questions such as what exactly misconceptions are, what constitutes conceptual change and why is it so difficult remained unclear. These questions are the challenges that most conceptual change researchers face in their work. In order to promote deeper understanding, all naive knowledge needs to be repaired. However, naive knowledge is very resistant to change. According to Chi [34], because conceptual change is defined as the process of removing misconception, the definition is an infinite loop unless what constitute a misconception is established. While some naive conceptions or misconceptions are very difficult to change, other preconceptions are easier to change. Some of the reasons why misconceptions are hard to repair is due to the fact that they involve difficult to understand principles and concepts. Aside from that [34], because misconceptions are embedded in naive theories, and naive theories are difficult to separate with correct theories, the conceptual shift across both category is a difficult process. Lacks of awareness among students in their learning process often result in the inability to realize that their understanding is flawed. Students may not be aware of their own misconception and is unaware of their incorrect understanding. Similarly, in the context of miscategorization of concept, students may not aware if systematic interpretations can be generated using their miscategorized concept. Role of Computer in conceptual change research In the advent of computer architecture, computers evolved into a versatile tool capable of performing many tasks otherwise impossible for human being. Computers are not only useful as a tool in presentation and production, but recent studies aimed at using computers as learning enhancement tool successfully developed computer as a cognitive tool to facilitate the teaching and learning process. Consequently, this give rise to studies and development of using modern computer technologies to foster conceptual development and conceptual change assistance tools in classrooms [35]. We would like to focus on two major roles of computer as cognitive tools in enhancing conceptual change education and discuss in detail in the later: Computer simulations Agent technology Intelligent System as Assessment Method These cognitive tools were designed to provide effective and intelligible tools to provoke reasoning and comprehension skills. Together with the aid of educators, these cognitive tools act as a catalyst to promote and enhance learning experience and students conceptual change. Theories and models of conceptual change According to Piaget [36], the students knowledge changing process is identified by assimilations and accommodations and incorporates with equilibrium to foster conceptual change. Assimilation is the recognition process of fitting an event into an existing conception [37]. Accommodation, on the other hand, enables new conception to replace the previous conception by changing fundamental belief about how the world works. For accommodation to occur, we believe that a student must be involved in a state of cognitive equilibrium by becoming motivated. When the students expectations are not met, equilibrium occurs. If the words, ideas and experiences presented can be assimilated by the student, then there is no equilibrium and subsequently no conceptual change. Conceptual change does not depend on contradiction, but on equilibrium. In Kuhns [1] opinion, scientific revolution is consistent and follows a pattern. The basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing and doing things is considered as a â€Å"state of crisis† due to its failure to solve or explain significant problems [1] within the scientific community. This situation, which is termed as a dominant scientific paradigm, gave conception to an alternative paradigm with the potential to solve the initial problem. The two conditions, between solving and not solving the scientific problem, increased a third probability situation in between, which is what known as â€Å"paradigm shift†, giving the world a whole new framework of thinking. Starting with a group of science education researchers and philosophers in Cornell University in the early 80s [2] , contemporary research and development of conceptual change theory was based on both Piagets notion of disequilibration and accommodation and Thomas Kuhns description of scientific revolution [1]. In an attempt to clarify the concept of conceptual change, many researchers have proposed different opinions of the theory. Bereiter and Scardamalia [25] postulated the ideas of the intentional learner and Pintrich, Marx Boyle [31] emphasized that conceptual change is more than conceptual. The emphasis for change is within the learners control and the notion of intentional conceptual change is in certain aspect similar to that of mindfulness [38]. It is assumed that learners are in full awareness and the state of change in mind is voluntarily, with the aid of motivation, cognition and learning. Hewsons [39] approach towards conceptual change is in favour of the constructivists idea [40]. The constructivism philosophy is founded on the basis that we construct our own understanding of the surroundings by using our existing knowledge. Since the construction process is influenced by social experiences, individually constructed knowledge is usually not idiosyncratic nor personal and Hewson [39] believed that individually constructed knowledge is rational [41]. However, the existing knowledge and socially accepted beliefs act as a hindrance to the interpretation of new experiences and influences the perception of new knowledge in any situation. Therefore, depending on individual knowledge foundation and beliefs, and the influences of social interaction, two individuals exposed to the same events may perceive and interpret them in very different ways. According to Vosniadou [42], the process of conceptual change in learning is a constructivist approach with the assumption that knowledge is gained in domain specific and theory-like structures. Knowledge acquisition is characterized by theory changes [42] and is continuous and progressive. According to Chi and Roscoe [43], conceptual change is the process of repairing misconceptions. According to Hatano and Inagaki [44], naive conception is formed in order to make sense and predict unfamiliar entities of the surrounding. Usually, very young children formulate their own explanations and predictions of the world around them. The formed naive conception is continually repaired and replaced by new, plausible ideas. Chi and Roscoe [43] also viewed these misconceptions as incorrect categorization of concepts, and therefore conceptual change is the reassignment of concept to correctly categorize the concepts. According to diSessa [44] conceptual change is the reorganization of the various kinds of knowledge into a complication system in the learners mind. According to this view, conceptual change is the process of cognitive reorganization of fragmented naive knowledge. In contrast, Ivarsson, Schoultz and Saljo, [45] regards that naive conception does not serve any purpose in conceptual change, since conceptual change is the appropriation of intellectual tools. In this context, conceptual change is the result of change in the usage of these intellectual tools, and occurs at the societal level. Conceptual Change Models The earliest model of conceptual change, termed as the classical conceptual change model is postulated by Posner et al. [2]. The classical conceptual change model was modeled from the epistemological perspective, and according to this model, there are four conditions before conceptual change could occur. The conditions are: dissatisfaction with existing conception, intelligibility, plausibility and fruitfulness of the new concept. The four conditions will be explored in detail in the next few paragraphs. In order for conceptual change to occur, there must be dissatisfaction with existing conceptions. Scientists and students will only make major changes in their concepts if they believe that less radical changes does not work. Thus, before an accommodation occur, that particular individual must have in mind unsolved puzzles or anomalies, and is dissatisfied with the ability of his current concept capacity to solve these problems. The new concept must be intelligible. This means, the new experience encountered by the student must be sufficient in order for a new concept to be structured from it. It is worth noting that researchers often emphasize on the importance of analogies and metaphors in aiding initial meaning and intelligibility to the new concepts [46], [47]. The new concept must also sound plausible in order to be acceptable. The new concept must at least seem to be able to solve problems generated by the prior concept; otherwise the new concept will not seem like a plausible choice. In fact, plausibility is resulted by the consistency of the concepts with other new knowledge. For example, a new idea in astronomy may less likely be accepted if it is inconsistent with the current knowledge of the subject matter. Prior to the 20th century, physical scientist were reluctant to accept the geologists claim for the age of the world, since theory regarding the sum to provide energy for the period of time was not founded yet. Lastly, the possibility of a new concept to provide further fruitful research program is also important. A new concept should have the potential to provide extensive and new areas for inquiry. Researchers and students alike, estimates the fruitfulness of an alternative conception by evaluating whether the concept opens to something interesting, worthwhile to explore. However, classical conceptual change was criticized for its overly rational approach. Vosniadous [48] framework theory approach attempts to meet the criticisms against the conceptual change theory. In framework theory approach, misconceptions are not considered as unitary nor faulty conception. The knowledge system consists of various different elements in a complex organization. [48] Taking into consideration the evolutionary factors as well as learners interaction with their physical and social environment and their availability of cultural tools, the formation of the learners initial theory is distinctive from the misconceptions produced after systematic instructions. The constructivist approach of framework theory approach assumes that new conception is built on existing knowledge structures [48]. The constructivist perspective provides a comprehensive framework for meaningful and detailed prediction of the process of knowledge acquisition. Lets look at conceptual change from the point of view of the educators. It is the responsibility of the educators to teach students in the way that students conception difference could be facilitated. In fact, latest education related studies tried to include the students conceptions in the process of learning, in which a concept called â€Å"conceptual change teaching† is formed [32]. In this concept, several stages of conceptual teaching are identified. These stages includes; firstly, the diagnostic or elicitation stage, where the educators uses diagnostic techniques to find out the students existing conceptual ideas and the reasoning behind the idea; secondly, the status change stage, in which educators uses designated methods to aid students lower the level of the existing incorrect knowledge and increase the level of the correct ideas; and lastly, the evidence of the outcome, whether the outcome of the learning process is partly based on the consideration of the prior exi sting knowledge. During the different stages aforementioned, there are different contributing factors, or variable that affects the teaching of conceptual change. These variables include metacognition, classroom climate, role of teacher and the role of learner. Metacognition refers awareness of thought processes, and is related to cognitive functions such as perception and attention [49]. Educators should encourage students to look at the ideas in a third persons perspective, stepping back to evaluate both the new and old ideas, and express their opinions. Classroom climate refers to the atmosphere where the learning process is conducted, and the relationship between the educators and the students. There must be a mutual respect of ideas in order to foster a positive climate for learning. As a teacher, or educator, the role of teacher is to ensure that the students are provided ample opportunities for self expression without being judged. An educators role is to deliver knowledge and the educator themselves must be aware that the knowledge that transpires in the lessons ought to be shared and discussed, rather than dispelling ideas that are different from their own. As a student, or learner, the role of learner is to be responsible of their own learning, to take interest in ideas different from their own and to synthesis new ideas from different sources, rather than expecting to memorize knowledge delivered by the educator. These variables to facilitate teaching have been successfully implemented in different levels of education and subjects [50], [51]. Lets look at the alternative conception. In the alternative conception survey, there are many misconceptions that affect conceptual change, but the variables are inferential and hard to distinguish, especially for perceptions that are reported by subjects themselves [52]. Three of the most general evidences stemmed from experience and perceptions, a wide variety of cultural values and ideas, and language factors. According to Hawkins and Pea [53], young childrens scientific knowledge structure is constructed on a â€Å"domain by domain† basis† before they receive formal education. Therefore, children are active constructors of their own knowledge framework. By interacting with the physical world and cultural environment, young children actively ask questions and give reasons about things in their point of view to gain â€Å"more predictive control† over their surroundings. The child learns about expectation of his own actions by the action of others, as well as the reaction of the physical world, and construct non-scientific framework of their encounters, which form the basis of their interpretation of natural and social events. Growing up children in all societies discover a many phenomena that facilitates learning, but not all discoveries are automatically interpreted, explicated and causally related in their mind. Prior to formal education or instruction, the childrens understanding is sufficient in interpreting and guiding them in their daily life [54] but this pre-conception of idea may drastically hinder formal scientific learning in classroom. The origin of conception is also heavily influence by the culture where the students grow up in. The social scene is highly critical in influencing the perception of a particular task in the learning environment [55]. Radical viewpoint differences from the accepted notions within the social scene will not survive for long as they will generally be excluded from social intercourse. Many young children do not have the ability to withstand the pressure, and the desire to be accepted will cause many ideas to be abandoned. Therefore, the strong influences of the overall culture on students perception and understanding cannot be ignored by the educators. Quoting the example of Lopez [56], the Itzaj (a people native to the Americas) and the North American college students are observed in the folkbiological taxonomies. It is observed that the Itzaj subjects have a unique way of categorizing bats. While the American group categorized bats with insectivores and rodents (scientifically correct to a certain degree), the Itzaj left them ungrouped and in a general category, or they classified the bats as birds. While formal interview revealed that the Itzaj agree that the bats is more like shrews and small rodents, they refuse to classify bat as mammals because they â€Å"knew† bats are birds. The influences of their culture caused the Itzaj subjects to ignore the relationship of bats to mammals. On the other hand, scientific understanding influences in the culture of the American college students, however, enable the North American college students to have misconceptions such as the Itzaj. The language, being the medium on interaction, is an influential variable in conception. Word meanings and usage may differ from individuals, and the correct term used by educators might be different from what the students perceive in their naive knowledge. Especially in scientific learning, concepts and definitions ma

Biography On Anton Van Leeuwenhoek History Essay

Biography On Anton Van Leeuwenhoek History Essay Human life is abundant of the deepest perspective towards the minutest aspects. Some of these are the result of our instinctive origination while the remainders owe their majority to Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, the man to whom the world looked as the individual who grafted the preference for minuscule details into our conscience. For those who are privy of his whereabouts, need no mentioning, and for those who are oblivious, it would be just to say that todays Microbiology would be an impossibility if it has not been accounted to his contributions. Born in a Dutch family based in Deft, Leeuwenhoek grew up to walk in the dual steps of a tradesman and scientist, who was best designated as The Father of Microbiology. He was also considered as the first microbiologist, and through his indulgence in the improvement of the microscope, he ensured a proper establishment of Microbiology as an essential cog of science. Because of his valiant hardship, we have been able to savor ourselves through some exceptional microbiological technologies that hold prominence in both educational and medicinal applications. Animacules or microorganisms, as we refer to them today was the term that he coined to those single-celled organisms that he first observed and described using his handcrafted microscopes. Leeuwenhoek was also the first to document minuscule examination of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and most essential, the flow of blood in capillaries. If put concisely then Leeuwenhoek was one of those rare contributors, in the dearth of whom we would be still breathing in medieval period. THE BEGINNING The history subscribed to one of the most influential phenomena when Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was born on Oct. 24, 1632, in a decent Dutch family that was based in Delft, a modest town of the nation of Netherlands. His father was a basket-maker, while his mother belonged to a family of brewers. His parents, who seemed to be quite conservative in their approach preferred to further his education informally. His subjects comprised of mathematics and physical science, but languages missed the companionship of his educational endeavors, and this probably explains Dutch being his only lingual acquaintance. Despite of the decency of his familial background, Leeuwenhoek had to leave his education in between and at the callous age of 16, he was sent to Amsterdam, to become an apprentice at a linendrapers shop. There, he familiarized himself with the peculiar aspects of the profession and employed six years of his invaluable youth in gaining its expertise. However, soon his craving for the innovativeness dimmed the light of his apprenticeship, and he left his prevalent profession to search for what truly inspired his desires. Around 1654, Leeuwenhoek registered his return to the hometown of Delft and in an auspicious event, he communed himself in a marital relationship with Barbara De May. She bore him five children. The bond of marriage brought mandatory responsibilities on Vans shoulders and for its proper execution; he bought a house and a shop and established himself in the business as a draper. For the substantial number of years linen draping seemed to be the only profession that fortified his indulgence in any commercial prospect to an extent that at one point it appeared that the draper would be his social attire for the rest of his life, which could have introduced a drastic paragraph in the pages of the history. Then, in the year of 1660, he was appointed Chamberlin to the sheriffs of Delft. It was a post that he held for about thirty-nine years. For the next thirteen years the identity of Chamberlin elucidated Leeuwenhoeks professional front and the rest of his activities were concealed by the obliviousness. However, he must have developed the habit of grinding lenses to employ them in the construction of simple microscope. The event that solidified the existence of his interest occurred in the year 1668 when he journeyed to England in the companionship of one of his microscopes. He used it to examine chalk from the cliffs of Kent. At that time, Leeuwenhoek lacked any sort of professionalism in the field of microscopy, and was unprepared to describe any logical conclusions. Vigilant observation, cautious documentation and the prevention of hasty conclusions were the essentials of his concept. His was a firm believer in the fact that each and every entity that dwells on this earth, be it living or non-living, is worth researching; it could be anything like a drop of rain, pepper-water, seeds, wooden bark, skin, open wounds and other bodily contributors, a beetle colliding against a window, or something as simple as an itch on his skin. He was equally allured by the hypothesis formulated by the likes of Jan Swammerdam, Christian Huygens, Boerhave and Harvey. Leeuwenhoek was the first to monitor the parasite Anisakis in the Hering. He also warned Hendrik about the worms in a fresh Hering, in a letter that he sent to him; he wrote: Wormkens in de holligheit van de buyk van de haring. Leeuwenhoek was also the foremost person to discover that the composition of a living cell accounts to 80% water, and was the discoverer of the technique of microdissections on insects. This procedure enabled him to become a recipient of remarkable outcomes that overshadowed the modern standards that were in fashion in that particular time. Leeuwenhoek should be credited with the foundation of forensic microscopy, and it was a sheer luck for us that despite of the lack of accepted professionalism, he believed in a thorough procedural observation, and only after the decisive verification, he published his findings. He examined everything, ranging from biological specimens to mineral objects. He even performed an experiment with the gunpowder compound and provided a valuable suggestion to the French chief-commander to shorten the barrel in order to approach maximum effect. Leeuwenhoek had a friendly and polite character, and he spoke with empathy and compassion about his fellow-men and ill people and visited them. His regular acquaintances were the lepers in a leper-hospital that was bricked in the city of Haarlem. However this account arose some contradictions, as it does not match to the view of some authors who consider him as the owner of ascetic character. FIRST RECOGNITION AND ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON Just like in a room draped in darkness, a brief speck of light is enough to enlighten an object of curiosity. The miniscule visual manifestation that Leeuwenhoek assembled from the sample of the chalk embarked his intellect, which in turn resulted in an autonomous gradation from curiosity to adamant passion. Soon, he devoted himself to the manufacturing of the microscopes and savored their aid in registering the detailed structure of the minute organisms, and it is a belief that the origination of his curiosity dated back to 1665 when he read Micrographia*, a brilliant work published by Robert Hooke. It is believed that it was this work that had probably stimulated his adamant interest in the world of minuscule. [*Note: It is a historical account documented by Robert Hooke that comprised of thirty-years long observation that he performed through various lenses. The book was published in the auspicious month of September 1665, which was the Royal Societys first key publication, and was the first scientific best-seller that inspired a wide public interest in the field of microscopy. It is also noteworthy for coining the biological jargon, cell.] Nurturing his interest like a gardener nurtures his plants, Leeuwenhoek dwelled deeper into the construction of microscopes, and it was during this period that he found the use of single lenses of very short focal length preferable than the compound microscopes that were processed back then; and the brilliance of the discoveries that he made using these back their reliabilities. Nonetheless, his resilience and austerity enhanced his observational skills and when the autumn applauded the arrival of the year 1673 through a progressive intensity, Vans attempts paid off via Regnier De Graff. Graaf, was a brilliant young physician of Delft, who accidentally acquainted himself with the discoveries made by Leeuwenhoek and in a favourable swirl of fate, his discoveries generated an immaculate impression on the former one to an extent that he wrote a letter about the latters works to Henry Oldenburg, Secretary of the Royal Society in London. This letter was published in  Philosophical Transactions,  and Oldenburg wrote to the author requesting further communications. Graafs initiative brought the microbiologist under Oldenburgs merger attention that in turn resulted in the former writing a letter to the Royal Society*. His first letter contained some observations on the stings of bees. However, he never wrote an authentic scientific paper. The explanation of his discoveries was a scramble of letters written in Low Dutch that sometimes were objectionable by some society members. [*Note: The Royal Society was an organization formed in 1662 under a royal charter granted by Charles II. Devoted to register fresh technological developments in the field of science, the societys aim was to facilitate the scientists in achieving their goals.] The initiators and perhaps the earliest members of the Royal Society who were also the designers of modern English Speculative Freemasonry, included prominent intellectuals from the invisible college as William Viscount Brouncker, Robert Moray, Robert Boyle, William Petty, John Wilkins, Christopher Wren, Robert Hooke, Elias, Ashmole and Isaac Newton. Although a direct evidence regarding to his early indulgence in the society is missing, the accumulation of the substantial number of clues indicate towards his lineage with a Vrijmetselaar or with the inspiration originating from Masonic attitudes. As it is believed that the superficiality certifies the outcome of ones intellectuality. Such occurred with Leeuwenhoek in the initial period of his relationship with the Royal Society. It was a probability that the organizational constitution of his papers would have biased the members minds who preferred a more mannered approach to the detailing. In a probable consequence, they challenged the existence of such minute organisms as his animalcules and waived the possibility of the authenticity of such idea. Leeuwenhoek, who attired generosity in the beginning, soon became wearied of it and he presented the society with the thorough account of his methodical approach in estimating their sizes through their diametrical comparison to the objects that fell under the direct measurable dimensions. Through the implication of rational computations, he predicted their volumes from their perceptible diameters. Through the illustrational cohesion of his subjects and the spherical and objects he simplified his explanation for the members to understand. He depicted the possibility of the existence of literally a million microbes in the volume that equals a grain of sand. By progressively comparing objects of decreasing size with one another, he proved for example that protozoan  cilia  are thousands-fold smaller than a human hair. Even though the successful exhibition of the protozoan cell, the society still attired doubt around itself, so it wrote a letter and wished its interest in renting his microscope for a span of few days. However, Leeuwenhoek, who until now had developed a inseparable adoration towards his instrument denied its handover, even if it was transitory in nature. The members were privy that until and unless a proper inspection would continue to facilitate its share of obliviousness, substantiation would not be possible. Therefore, in order to arrive to a judgement, they appointed two scientists- Nehemiah Grew and Robert Hooke to validate the credibility of his experiments. Credited with the new responsibility by the society, both the men initiated a serious attempt to corroborate Leeuwenhoeks observations. Their initial effort acquainted them to failure, which put his report under doubtful perspective. However, Hooke, who was adamant in his attitude, despite of the ambiguity, found a faint credibility in the microbiologists study. He again tried using a microscope with 330 X (power of magnification). The results that second trial generated, brought a smile on his face, and confirmed Leeuwenhoeks success. Both the scientists reported the resultant similarity in their observations and to those that Leeuwenhoek explained in his letters. The society, despite of its scepticism, accepted Leeuwenhoeks claims, and in the same year Graaf sent them a letter, they conveyed a delegation to Delft. Their words relayed reluctance and showed an inclination towards a forceful methodical acceptance, but their rave report confirmed Vans declaration. Just like in the morning, a drop of dew enhances the beauty of the leaf it perches; in the same way the remarkable authentication of the microbiologists claims generated immaculate allurement over substantial number of prominent figures around Europe, which included even the Future Queen Anne of England and Tsar Pytor I of Russia. They failed in keeping themselves away from witnessing the demonstration of his marvels. His fame soon ensured his undeviating place in the history of science and a few years later he was elected to full membership in the society. However, his attendance to the organizations meeting registered absence, and did his signature on the societys membership catalogue. Leeuwenhoeks correspondence with the Royal Society was initiated through a series of letters that he wrote in Dutch, which then were translated into English or Latin and included in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. They were often reprinted separately. His entire observations were explained in letters that numbered to at least two hundred. They were addressed either to the society or to his friends. Leeuwenhoeks letters comprised of random observations with little coherence that were written in an informal style. However, despite of the casualness that the description of his observations attired, he avoided the fusion of the facts with his speculations that could otherwise lead to confusion. His vigilance resulted in the effortless identification of numerous organisms that he described in his catalogue. To give some of the flavor of his discoveries, we present extracts from his observations, together with modern pictures of the organisms that Leeuwenhoek saw. An amusing facet to add in Antons life is that he considered his own artistic skills capable enough to execute the vital task of illustrating his findings. Therefore, for almost all the instances, he hired limners* to commence that short of work. [Note*: Originated illuminators, i.e. artists and engravers that we now know as illustrators or commercial artists.] LEEUWENHOEKS MICROSCOPES Just like a musician without his instruments or a painter without his brushes are mere statistical puppets in the pages of history, in the same way an introduction to Leeuwenhoek without mentioning the medium of his genius would be just like a pizza served without any toppings. The number and quality of Leeuwenhoeks mikroskoops (as they were known back then) and the ones that survived share ambiguous certainty. However, through a mutual agreement it can be said that he constructed at least several hundred of them, out of which about two hundred and fifty were complete. Amongst those most of them included a mounted specimen and also about two hundred mounted lenses. STRUCTURAL MAGNIFICANCE Leeuwenhoeks microscopes were simple magnifying glasses comprised of single spherical or biconvex lens that were mounted amidst two copper, brass or silver plates. The size of the plates matched the modern microscopic slides, i.e. about 1/3 inches. The object that was subjected to the examination was raised, lowered, or rotated by threaded screws attached to the plate. His device also included one of the first mechanical micromanipulation systems. However, Hooke had already accomplished this with a touch of differentiation. It was a possibility that Leeuwenhoek must have understood early that the shallow depth of field of strong microscopic lenses had ruled out focusing on microorganisms by hand. Like modern objective lenses, his lenses were extremely small with short focal lengths of 1-2 millimeters. There was requirement with the lenses; it was a need to consign them close to the eyes, and adequate practice and good eyesight were mandatory factors for their usage. The plates were c arved up to provide adequate grasp between the eyebrow and cheek like a jewellers monocle loupe. Following a standard scientific procedure, the plates were held in a horizontal position with the threaded stem used as a handle peeping away from the nose. Estimates of microscopes magnifying power vary from about 200 to 500 diameters, and if the higher number is true then he had achieved about a third or even a half of the highest magnification possible with visible light! The sizes of the objects that he mentioned in his reports and the finesse that attired the detailing of his drawings do bear out their astonishing optical precision and to Antons own skills as one of the very first microscopists in history. LENSES According to the numerous references in many accounts of Leeuwenhoeks work consider him as an inventor of microscopes. However, he did not invent his single-lens microscope. It is Robert Hookes Micrographia, which illustrates the conjectural benefit of using minimal possible number of lenses. Hooke also provided a detailed description of the process of the creation of small round lenses that involved the drawing and fusion of fine glass whiskers into tiny spheres. His technique included the fixing of multiple spheres to a sheet of wax for simultaneous pulverization and polishing of the attachment sites of the whiskers. His methodical approach reveals his practical experience in the construction of such lenses. He even explained the process of mounting a tiny single-lens on a needle-hole perforated through a thin metal plate, which was in exact resemblance with Van Leeuwenhoek microscope. Hooke presumed them to be the superior microscopes, but the annoying twirl of fate introduced him to a mordant outcome when the difficulty of their usage surfaced due to the need of holding them close to the eye. But as it is said that it is the lifes excruciating experiences that account to the learning of survival, such occurrence encouraged him to add an extra lens near the eye. This modification gave birth to the compound microscope and the lens is known as the eyepiece lens. Hookes indulgement with the microscope shows the possibility of Van Leeuwenhoek picking up his design from Hooke, and therefore an speculation can be drawn that the later one is better viewed as a discoverer rather than as an inventor. Even though we are to be believed, that Leeuwenhoek was the one who used to ground his lenses, but the fact is that its authenticity will always lurk behind ambiguity. His unvarying dissembling that an exceptional requirement of time, skill and effort were coherent ingredients of his construction method, is consistent with his common unwillingness to teach or encourage competitors. In the dearth of direct evidence, it can at least be speculated that he actually copied Hookes procedure and fabricated lenses by pulling and fusing spherical globules with smoother planes than he could ever have accomplished by grinding. Once, a German sojourner Zacharias Konrad Zetloch Von Uffenbach gave a long visit to Van Leeuwenhoek who chivalrously entertained him with countless wonders. However, instead of expressing his gratitude, the former one ungraciously wrote in memoir: When we further inquired of Herr Leeuwenhoek whether he ground all his lenses, and did not blow any? He denied this, but displayed great contempt for the blown glasses. He pointed out to us how thin his  microscopia were, compared with others  (This phrase seems to indicate that one man or the other had seen instruments of like construction that may have predated Antonjs own. ed.),  and how close together the  laminae  were between which the lens lay, so that no spherical glass could be thus mounted; all his lenses being ground, contrariwise, convex on both sides. As regards the blown glasses, Herr Leeuwenhoek assured us that he had succeeded, after ten years speculation, in learning how to blow a serviceable kind of glasses which were not round. My brother was unwilling to believe this, but took it for a  Dutch joke (a snide German euphemism for a lie ed.); since it is impossible, by blowing, to form anything but a sphere, or rounded end.   von Uffenbach, 1710. Despite of the nature of Uffenbachs excerpt, the inducement of too much effort of the individual grinding of each lens is undeniable in comparison to the ones that are fabricated in a span of one of two minutes via a spirit lamp and a blowpipe. In a sharp contrast to the modern method, which governs the usage of a single microscope and numerous disposable slides fixed placed on a fixed or moveable stage, Leeuwenhoek was in a habit of building a new microscope for separate captivating specimen. He considered the complete instruments as permanent settings for his choicest specimens, which is why it can be speculated that he might have built hundreds of them. Due the secrecy that Leeuwenhoek maintains in his methods, the predictability of his works always share ambiguity; for an example, it is still unclear that how he obtained the necessary illumination to achieve his remarkable results. Clifford Dobell suggested that he might have discovered some simple method of dark-ground illumination, whereas Barnett Cohen contradictorily stated that Van Leeuwenhoek might have exploited the optical properties of spherical drops of fluid containing the objects under observation. THE ARCHWAY OF A DISCOVERER Leeuwenhoek through his resilient genius gave the field of Microbiology numerous discoveries that provided the foothold of which it boasts today. His researches in the life history of the lower forms of animal life directly counteracted the accepted principle that they are a result of spontaneous regeneration or bred from corruption. He also showed that the weevils of granaries that in his times were commonly assumed to be bred from wheat, are grubs hatched from eggs deposited by winged insects. In his chapter on the flea, he not only provided a detailed description on his structure, but also traced out the whole history of its metamorphoses from its first emergence from the egg to the adulthood. Even today, if we perform a thorough observation of its growth process, we will find it extremely captivating. It is owed not so much for the precision of his observation, as for its incidental disclosure of the extraordinary unawareness that was in existence back then in regard to the origin and propagation of this minuscule and despised creature, which some affirmed to be generated from sand, others from dust, others from the dung of pigeon and others from urine, but which he demonstrated to be gifted with as great excellence in its kind as any large animal, and proved to breed in the regular way of winged insects. He even made the note of the fact that the pupa of the flea is sometimes attacked and fed upon by a mite. This very particular observation suggested the well-known lines of Jonathan Swift. Being drawn to the blighting of the young shoots of fruit trees that was generally attributed the ants found upon them, Leeuwenhoek was the first to find the Aphides, the ones responsible for the ailment. He then made a thorough investigation in the history of their generation and observed the young existing in the bodies of their parents. He also did a vigilant study of the history of the ant and was the first to reveal that the commonly supposed ant eggs are really their pupae, holding the perfect insect nearly ready for emersion, at the same time the true eggs are far smaller, and give origin to maggots or larvae. He also provided a detailed explanation of another fact that sea mussel and other shellfish are not generated out of the mud or sand found on the seashore or the beds of rivers at low water, but from spawn through the regular course of generation. This way he successfully counteracted to the defense of Aristotles doctrine put forward by F. Buonanni, a learned Jesuit of Rome. He maintained the same in proving the authenticity of the freshwater mussels origination. The observation that he did on their ova was so precise that he witnessed the rotation of the embryo, a phenomenon that is believed to share its part of revelation long afterwards. With an equal enthusiasm, he investigated the generation of eels, which at that time were commonly supposed to be produced from dew without the ordinary process of generation. It is a surprise that the individuals who were a believer in it did not only comprise of ignorant, but respectable and learned men too. He not only entertained himself as the first discoverer of the rotifers, but he depicted hoe wonderfully nature has provided for the preservation of their species, by their tolerance of the drying-up of the water they inhabit, and the resistance that they generated to the evaporation of the bodily fluids via the construction of an impermeable casing in which they then become enclosed. We can now easily conceive, he says, that in all rainwater which is collected from gutters in cisterns, and in all waters exposed to the air, animalcules may be found; for they may be carried thither by the particles of dust blown about by the winds. A REVELATION SO PROMINENT When the summer steeped on the first step of the seasonal staircase and the year registered itself under 1974, Leeuwenhoek, through the induction of his brilliance, made an important discovery that was going to prove one of the major beneficiaries to the medical field. He provided a description of red blood cells, which was done with so much precision that he outshined his contemporaries Marcello Malpighi and Jan Swammerdam. In a fair estimation he catalogued their size, in modern terminology, 8.5 microns in diameter, the correct value is 7.7 microns. Leeuwenhoek sent a folio of sic pages to the Royal Society, in which he wrote about the microscopy of blood, and the structure of bone, teeth, liver, and brain; and the growth of epidermis. He also delivered finely cut sections of his specimens enwrapped in four envelopes pasted to the last sheet of the letter. He prepared them by his own hands for the interest of the society. These samples present great insight into Leeuwenhoeks manual dexterity as a microtomist. However, his talent for sample preparation got erased from the historical leaflets, partially because his later discoveries were so much dazzling that they outshone everything else. The dependency of the precision of his observation was in a direct proportion to his meticulousness that was involved in the preparation of the slice of the sample. This reflects his infinitesimal patience. Many samples were successful in surviving for three-and-a-half centuries and are still viewable under the modern microscopes, but the others were ruined by fungal growth, due to moisture, and it is impossible to study them now. In the same year of 1674, he gave an immaculate description of the beautiful alga Spirogyra and various ciliated and flagellated protozoa that he discovered in a single vial of pond scum, which he had taken from the Berkelse Mere, a small lake near Delft. This occasion could be considered the simultaneous births of the fields of Microbiology, protozoology (now called protistology) and phycology. He also found that yeast consists of individual plant-like organisms. Eight years later in 1682, Leeuwenhoek gave a clarified description of the nucleus within the red blood cells of fish, and in the year that followed, he perceived the sedimentation of erythrocytes from a suspension and their lysis on the addition of water. In the same year, he discovered the lymphatic capillaries and mentioned them in the description of blood capillaries in the intestine. He explained them as different capillaries containing a white fluid, like milk. THE INGREDIENT OF PROSPERITY For the next couple of years Leeuwenhoek depicted negligible accomplishment in explaining anything that could lead to the extraordinary advancement of the science of his time. His observations concerning the circulatory system of transparent tadpoles were obsolete, which only strengthened the popular notion of him following Swammerdam, Hooke and other anatomists. A time came when it seemed the Van would become only a little better than an average anatomist. Then, fate took a favourable turn of the situation when in 1676 he shifted his focus on the objects that existed in the blind corner of the anatomists. They included; cheese-rind fungi, animal sperm, bile liquid from different species of animals, crystals formed in urine, exploding gun powder, plaque that he extracted from his teeth, melted snow and a few others. However, the turning point of his career and the one that can be related to the origination of biology occurred when he attempted to interpret black pepper, the spice that was the reason for numerous European merchants prosperity, and an invaluable ingredient to the Dutch painters still-life masterpieces. The cause of his curiosity was his want to understand the reason behind the sweltering hot sensation that it caused in the mouth. Thorny protrusions resembling the ones found in thistle or a nettle were the ones that touched his expectations. He presumed them as the entities that stung the tongue. However the revelation that the dry peppercorn provided when observed under his microscope, hardly matched his satisfaction. This led him to think that it is the combination with the saliva that initiates these thorns into action. Therefore, he drenched the peppercorns in sterile water, but when he looked at the soaked peppercorns, instead of burry edges, he saw miniscule entities swimming in the water. However, that thought of those things to be some animalcules didnt appear in his mind. The examination of many types of water has grafted in him a very good understanding of waters purity, depending on the source. He had used sterile water from melted snow and covered the dish tightly so that nothing could fly from the air in the room. A couple of days later when he observed the pepper-water under his lens, he mentioned the observation something like this, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the water is so thick with them, that you might almost imagine you were looking at the spawn of fish, when the fish discharges its roe. His comprehensive notes reveal that he witnessed the existence of bacilli in that water. His experimentation continued from the month of April to the August with pepper-water. He made a note of everything he did and saw. Once Leeuwenhoek was done with pepper, he shifted his attention on ginger, cloves and nutmeg. He soaked them and observed under his microscope, but not to unearth the reason of their taste, he wanted to compare their animalcules with those of pepper-water. From his meticulous description of his observation of the spice waters and other diverse natural waters, it becomes apparent that he saw flagellates, ciliates, bacteria and rotifers. Leeuwenhoeks 18th letter to the Royal Society is regarded as is most striking and immaculate account of description. It is also known as the letter on protozoa, it consists of seventeen pages of closely written text in a neat, small handwriting. A copy of the letter was also delivered to Constantijn Huygens, Christians father. It